1 Introduction

Tea (Camellia sinensis) holds a prominent place in Chinese agriculture and culture, with its production dependent on a complex growth cycle and management techniques. To meet the market’s demand for high-quality tea, scientific and precise tea garden management is essential. The yield and quality of premium green tea not only rely on favorable climatic conditions and healthy tea tree growth but also require systematic year-round management (Li et al., 2014). Notably, the autumn and winter management phase, even when tea trees enter a dormancy period, significantly impacts the quality and yield of the following spring’s tea crop.

Tea yield and quality directly influence market competitiveness and economic benefits. Particularly in the premium tea market, consumers increasingly demand natural, safe, and high-quality tea. Tea quality is typically assessed by the tenderness, aroma, taste, and color of fresh leaves, factors influenced by natural conditions and tea garden management practices (Duncan et al., 2016). Yield, on the other hand, affects the income of tea farmers and the production scale of tea enterprises. Given the long growth cycle of tea trees and the susceptibility of yield stability to climate fluctuations, scientific tea garden management can help mitigate the effects of climate variations on yield. Through scientific autumn and winter management practices, the healthy growth of tea trees is assured, laying a solid foundation for the following spring harvest (Dai et al., 2021; Ma et al., 2021).

Autumn and winter management is a critical component of annual tea garden care, playing a decisive role in tea tree health and the quality of the next year’s tea leaves. Autumn is crucial for nutrient storage, while winter is a relative dormancy phase. During this time, tea trees still require nutrient replenishment and pest and disease prevention measures to enhance resilience and adaptability. Autumn and winter management includes fertilization, weeding, pruning, and pest control. Base fertilization (such as organic and phosphorus-potassium fertilizers) improves soil fertility, ensuring the quality of spring buds (Cao, 2002; Xie et al., 2019). Removing weeds, pruning branches, and clearing diseased wood prevent pest proliferation and create a favorable environment for spring tea growth (Sun et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2023). Pruning and topping control the height and shape of tea trees, promote bud growth, and facilitate spring harvesting. Thus, autumn and winter management not only plays a maintenance role but also lays a strong foundation for high-quality, high-yield spring tea production, ensuring the health and sustainability of the tea garden.

This study comprehensively explores the impact of autumn and winter management on the yield and quality of spring tea, focusing on Zhejiang Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden as the study site. It analyzes the effects of various management practices on tea tree health, soil conditions, and the ecological environment during the autumn and winter seasons, thereby evaluating their positive impact on spring tea production. By summarizing the specific management practices of Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden, this research aims to provide scientific and practical management strategies for tea farmers and enterprises, balancing economic benefits with ecological sustainability and advancing the industrialization of high-quality tea production.

2 Research Site and Background

2.1 Overview of the Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden

The Zhejiang Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden is renowned for its premium tea, where ecological conditions and management practices directly affect tea yield and quality. The garden's geographic setting, tea varieties, and local ecological factors present unique conditions and challenges for autumn and winter management. Situated in the mountainous western region of Pujiang County, Zhejiang Province, this tea garden lies along a branch of the Longmen Mountain Range, characterized by diverse terrain and a rich ecological environment (Figure 1). The garden primarily features evergreen and deciduous broadleaf forests, providing a dense vegetation cover.

Due to the diversity of bedrock types and microclimatic variations, the tea garden has deep soil layers with complex soil types, including red soil, yellow soil, sandy soil, and gray ash soil. Each soil type offers distinct nutrient conditions and drainage properties. For example, the west-facing slopes have red soil that forms under warm, humid climates; it has low organic matter but high clay content, which provides good water and nutrient retention. The south-facing slopes are mainly sandy, with loose structure, while the north-facing slopes contain fine gray ash soil. Overall, the diversity in soil composition across the garden impacts nutrient levels and drainage, influencing tea tree growth and the selection of management practices (Zhang, 2018).

2.2 Primary tea varieties and their growth characteristics

The Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden cultivates several premium tea varieties, including the clonal cultivars Zhongcha 108, Baiye No.1, and Zhonghuang No.2, as well as the Jiukeng variety. Each tea variety demonstrates unique growth characteristics and adaptability across different soil conditions (Wang, 2021).

The clonal variety Zhongcha 108 has trees aged 11 and 15 years, mainly planted in red, yellow-sandy, and gray ash soils. Red soil has strong clay content and excellent water and nutrient retention, ideal for healthy tea tree growth; gray ash soil is loose and fertile, providing an optimal environment; yellow-sandy soil has a sandy upper layer with a clay-rich subsoil, which also supports water and nutrient retention (Lai and Peng, 2019; Kayama et al., 2020; Bruun et al., 2022). Consequently, Zhongcha 108 grows vigorously and shows high resilience in these soils. However, in areas with thin, sandy soils that lack development, tree growth is weaker, and resilience decreases. Baiye No.1, aged 15 years, is primarily planted in yellow-sandy soil areas, often in moist, nutrient-rich valleys. It grows well and is highly resilient overall; however, in areas with high groundwater, Baiye No.1 faces challenges, occasionally with algae growth on its surface, indicating poor adaptability in overly humid conditions, which requires drainage management for optimal growth. Zhonghuang No.2, aged 11 years, grows primarily in loose, well-aerated white sandy soil, where it exhibits strong growth and resilience, effectively adapting to seasonal climate variations.

The Jiukeng variety, cultivated from seeds sown in the 1960s, grows in yellow-sandy soil. These older trees have extensive, deep root systems that utilize the clay-rich subsoil for water and nutrient retention, giving them high resilience to extreme weather. These well-adapted older tea trees maintain steady growth in nutrient-rich soil conditions, effectively utilizing deep soil resources to withstand drought, cold, and other adverse climates.

2.3 Tea garden ecological environment and climatic conditions

The Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden benefits from an advantageous ecological environment, including a reservoir that provides water resource protection and helps regulate the garden’s microclimate. The garden is surrounded by diverse local vegetation, including Chinaberry (Melia azedarach), bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis), and rhododendron (Rhododendron simsii), while inside, shade trees like cedar (Cunninghamia lanceolata), sweet olive (Osmanthus fragrans), and Nanmu (Phoebe zhennan) have been planted, which help maintain ecological balance (Tong et al., 2018). The garden’s microenvironment also hosts nectar sources, such as daisies (Bellium minutum) and berry plants, which support beneficial insects like parasitic wasps, establishing a robust biological chain (Herz et al., 2021).

Additionally, the garden's geographical location and ecological setting create a warm, moderately humid climate conducive to tea tree growth. The unique autumn and winter climatic conditions and ecological environment directly affect pest and disease occurrence and soil nutrient retention in the tea garden. Proper management during this period further strengthens the tea trees’ resilience and ecological stability, providing a strong foundation for spring tea production (Lou et al., 2021).

3 Tea Garden Autumn and Winter Management Practices

3.1 Weeding and fertilization techniques

Autumn and winter management is a crucial component of annual tea garden care, essential for ensuring healthy tea tree growth and improving the yield and quality of spring tea. In October, as the tea trees enter dormancy, weeding and fertilization are carried out sequentially for the Jiukeng variety, Baiye No.1, Zhonghuang No.2, and Zhongcha 108. Weeds around the base of the tea trees are first removed to prevent competition for nutrients. Then, trenches about 20 cm deep are dug along the edge of the tea canopy, where organic fertilizer is applied and covered with soil to retain fertility. Fertilization is primarily done with rapeseed meal (100 kg per mu) or commercial organic fertilizer (1 ton per mu), supplemented by urea or high-phosphorus compound fertilizer (20-30 kg per mu) to address phosphorus deficiency in acidic soils (Cen et al., 2020). Sandy soils, generally rich in potassium, require only minimal fertilization.

Additionally, commercial organic fertilizer should be applied every two to three years to maintain sustained soil fertility and prevent nutrient depletion. This fertilizer, rich in organic matter and trace elements, enhances microbial activity and supports improved soil structure and aeration. In years when commercial organic fertilizer is not used, spent substrate from tea branch mushroom cultivation can be returned to the soil as a natural organic supplement (Lin et al., 2022). This substrate, rich in humus and nutrients, effectively raises organic matter content, improves soil looseness, enhances aeration and water retention, and supports healthy growth and resilience in tea trees.

3.2 Pruning and topping

Once the above-ground growth of tea trees ceases, pruning and topping become essential autumn and winter management measures. These practices primarily aim to enhance the quality of spring tea by removing new autumn branches, while also facilitating spring harvest operations (Lu et al., 2022). Different tea varieties exhibit variations in growth vigor and budding times, so pruning schedules and techniques must be adjusted accordingly. For instance, Zhongcha 108 begins to bud early and stops growing later, often producing new buds in early November. In such cases, tea garden managers should time pruning or topping before winter temperatures drop, based on weather forecasts, to prevent premature budding that would deplete stored nutrients. These practices reduce nutrient consumption by small branches, allowing tea buds in the next spring to grow more robustly.

Topping involves manually removing new buds in late autumn and early winter, while light pruning focuses on reducing excess small branches at the top of the tree or controlling tree height for easier harvesting (Figure 2). For Zhongcha 108, approximately 20 cm of the canopy is pruned, while only around 5 cm is removed for Zhonghuang No.2. The Jiukeng variety and Baiye No.1 typically do not require pruning, though minimal topping may be done if new buds appear. Proper pruning and topping control the overall height of the tea tree and make branches more compact, promoting uniform bud growth and improving harvesting efficiency for the following spring.

3.3 Garden clearing and sealing management

Clearing the garden is an essential step in autumn and winter management, aiming to create a clean, healthy environment for tea tree growth in the coming year. After fertilization, fallen branches and collapsed plants are cleared, especially weeds along pathways and between tea rows, to ensure smooth access and prevent weed-induced pest and disease outbreaks. Garden clearing also involves repairing terraced paths and roads within the tea garden, ensuring ease of maintenance and harvesting. In severely diseased plots, affected branches and leaves are removed from the garden to prevent further spread. This management not only improves the overall environment of the tea garden but also reduces the risk of pest infestations, promoting healthy tea tree growth for the following spring. Garden clearing contributes to improved resilience, soil aeration, and ultimately, tea yield.

Garden sealing involves pest control measures carried out when temperatures drop below 15 °C, typically using lime-sulfur spray on tea trees. Lime-sulfur, a high-efficiency, low-toxicity inorganic sulfur compound, is suitable for organic tea gardens. Its calcium polysulfide content has strong alkalinity, penetrating the cell walls of pathogens and pests, effectively killing them and their eggs (Cernava et al., 2019). During spraying, the tea trees should be evenly covered from bottom to top, ensuring thorough contact with potential pest habitats. Lime-sulfur spray controls common diseases such as powdery mildew, rust, and blight, as well as pests like red spider mites and scale insects. This sealing process not only limits pest spread but also prevents pest invasion in the coming spring, ensuring healthy tea tree growth.

3.4 Key plot management

In certain garden plots, unique factors such as terrain, soil properties, and groundwater levels may hinder tea tree growth, necessitating targeted management. For elevated, infertile plots prone to soil erosion, green manure crops can be planted in autumn and winter to preserve soil and water. Green manure fixes soil and, when decomposed, provides additional organic matter, gradually improving soil structure and suitability for tea tree growth (Doley et al., 2020; Hu et al., 2023). In areas with underdeveloped, rocky soils, deep plowing with loosening equipment accelerates rock weathering, enhances soil fertility, and generally improves soil conditions to support nutrient absorption for tea trees in the coming year.

In high-groundwater plots where Baiye No.1 shows poor growth, excessive water levels can lead to root oxygen deficiency and nutrient uptake issues, reducing tea tree resilience. For these cases, managers can dig deep drainage ditches in the lowest areas to improve drainage, reduce soil moisture, and enhance root health, minimizing the growth of algae and other unfavorable plants. In addition, for highly infertile soil plots, organic fertilizer can be applied to boost soil water and nutrient retention, increase microbial activity, and promote stronger growth and resilience in tea trees.

4 Analysis of the Impact of Autumn and Winter Management on Spring Tea Yield and Quality

4.1 Variation in spring tea yield and influencing factors

From 2022 to 2024, the spring tea yield at the Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden fluctuated due to differing climate conditions and management practices. The 2022 spring tea harvest season, from March 16 to April 29, experienced moderate but variable temperatures, peaking at 24 °C and 28 °C, with a cold snap in April (Figure 3). Despite these conditions, the complex terrain and diverse vegetation helped prevent frost damage, maintaining a stable yield of fresh leaves. However, the 2023 spring tea yield was significantly impacted by prolonged high temperatures and drought in the latter half of 2022. Data indicate a reduction in yield compared to the previous year, with weaker production branches and slower bud growth. This outcome reflects the notable influence of climate, particularly drought, in inhibiting nutrient accumulation.

In 2024, spring tea yield rebounded substantially, with the harvest period from March 19 to April 28, during which overall temperatures were higher and monthly temperature variations were smaller. Data show a 47.9% increase in spring tea yield compared to 2023, and a 3.7% increase relative to 2022 (Figure 4). Favorable climate conditions, combined with optimized autumn and winter management practices, improved nutrient availability and led to stronger tea buds, contributing to increased spring tea yield. Results indicate that the synergy of suitable temperatures and effective management can significantly boost yield, providing economic benefits to farmers and tea enterprises (Figure 5).

4.2 Spring tea quality assessment and the role of autumn and winter management

Autumn and winter management practices play an essential role in maintaining the quality of spring tea. In 2022, spring tea quality was stable, particularly with increased rainfall, as proper fertilization and pruning kept tea trees healthy, enhancing the tenderness and flavor of fresh leaves. Although 2022 experienced significant temperature fluctuations, the garden’s ecological system and management practices mitigated the adverse effects of extreme weather on tea quality. During the 2023 spring tea season, the drought from late 2022 resulted in poorer initial growth, leading to reduced quality and insufficient thickness, though some varieties, like the Jiukeng, retained their sweet floral aroma. In 2024, higher temperatures during harvest resulted in a stronger, occasionally bitter taste in early tea leaves.

Despite the warmer climate in 2024, which increased bitter components like polyphenols and caffeine, overall quality remained high due to robust autumn and winter management, including sufficient fertilization and appropriate pruning. Data indicate that while yield varied across different climate conditions, optimized autumn and winter management practices improved nutrient supply, effectively enhancing tea color and aroma, ensuring overall quality stability (Figure 4; Figure 5). Pruning, fertilization, and other autumn-winter measures play a key role in supporting stable yield and flavor quality for the upcoming spring tea season.

4.3 The indirect impact of the tea garden’s ecological environment on tea tree growth

Ecological construction at the Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden provides significant environmental support for tea tree growth by enhancing overall resilience through biodiversity. Over a decade of ecological improvements, including the planting of shade trees and nectar plants, has fostered a stable ecosystem and strengthened the garden’s ability to regulate microclimate. In the 2022 spring season, many surrounding tea gardens were affected by a cold snap, but the Dongping Garden avoided frost damage due to its topography and vegetation, with Baiye No.1 displaying strong resilience against the cold. This ecological advantage created a favorable microclimate, reducing the impact of temperature fluctuations on yield, and thus preserving tea quality and yield.

The tea garden’s ecological environment also enhances tea flavor and improves soil nutrient cycling. The various plants in the garden provide abundant nectar sources, attracting beneficial insects and reducing pest risks, which facilitates organic management practices. The ecosystem effectively supports soil fertility and moisture regulation, contributing to higher tea quality. The combination of autumn and winter management with a natural ecosystem enables the garden to maintain high-quality output even in a low-intervention environment. Sound ecological conditions and scientific management lay a strong foundation for sustainable development and consistent quality improvement in spring tea at the Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden.

5 Synergistic Effects of Climate Conditions and Tea Garden Management

5.1 Effects of autumn and winter climate changes on tea tree growth

Climate changes during the autumn and winter seasons directly affect tea tree dormancy and nutrient storage processes, which are crucial for determining the yield and quality of the following spring’s tea. Temperature fluctuations influence tea tree metabolism: higher temperatures extend the growth period, increasing nutrient consumption and potentially compromising spring bud quality (Yan et al., 2021). Conversely, lower temperatures induce earlier dormancy, reducing unnecessary nutrient expenditure and providing ample nutrition for spring bud development. For example, in 2022, warmer autumn temperatures delayed dormancy, while in 2023, drought affected nutrient accumulation, resulting in slower spring tea growth. These cases illustrate how autumn and winter climate variability directly impacts tea tree growth and the subsequent spring tea harvest.

Autumn and winter precipitation levels are also critical for soil moisture and root health. Adequate rainfall keeps soil moist, facilitating nutrient transport to roots and allowing energy reserves to accumulate (Yu et al., 2020). However, excessive precipitation may lead to oversaturation, causing root oxygen deficiency and negatively affecting growth. In 2022, ample rainfall maintained moderate soil moisture, laying a solid foundation for the 2023 spring tea crop. Conversely, drought conditions in the 2023 autumn and winter reduced soil moisture, leading to a decrease in spring 2024 yield. Therefore, autumn and winter climate conditions have a direct impact on the yield and quality of spring tea.

5.2 Analysis of climate adaptability in different tea varieties

Different tea tree varieties exhibit varied adaptability to climate conditions, with climate fluctuations leading to performance differences across varieties. For example, the clonal cultivar Zhongcha 108 buds early and has strong resilience, making it relatively adaptable; however, warmer autumn and winter temperatures prolong its budding period, potentially leading to excessive nutrient consumption and impacting the next year’s tea quality. The Jiukeng variety has a deep root system, enabling it to adapt to changes in deeper soil layers and withstand cold temperatures. During the cold snap of 2022, both Baiye No.1 and the Jiukeng variety showed good frost resistance, with no damage, while Zhonghuang No.2 thrived in warmer conditions, demonstrating excellent adaptability to high temperatures.

These differences suggest that in mountainous tea gardens with complex climates, tea tree varieties should be selected and planted based on their adaptability to maximize each variety's potential. By adjusting planting density and management methods to suit each variety’s adaptability, tea gardens can achieve high-quality, high-yield production under various climate conditions. A comprehensive understanding of tea variety adaptability allows for more scientifically informed responses to climate challenges, stabilizing tea yield and quality.

5.3 Management strategies for extreme climate conditions

In response to extreme climate events, such as drought and late spring frost, tea gardens must adopt appropriate management strategies to ensure the growth of tea plants and the quality of spring tea. Late spring frost poses a significant risk of frost damage to tea buds and leaves. To mitigate its impact, tea gardens should implement protective measures, such as planting tall vegetation between rows or setting up wind barriers to enhance the thermal insulation of the tea garden (Wang et al., 2021). In 2022, while many tea regions experienced frost damage from a cold snap, Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden avoided such damage through ecological protection and effective management, with Baiye No.1 showing no signs of cold stress, thus supporting stable spring tea quality.

In drought conditions, effective water management is essential to maintain tea tree hydration and minimize the negative impact on root health and growth. The drought of 2023’s autumn and winter affected spring 2024 tea yield, indicating that, in drought years, tea gardens should increase irrigation frequency or apply ground cover to reduce evaporation and retain soil moisture. Furthermore, fertilization strategies during autumn and winter should be adjusted to replenish nutrients lost due to extreme conditions. These adaptive strategies not only mitigate the impact of extreme weather but also support sustainable tea production under challenging conditions.

6 Discussion

6.1 Prospects for the application of autumn and winter management techniques in different regions

Autumn and winter tea garden management techniques have proven effective in improving tea tree health, and boosting both yield and quality of spring tea, providing a valuable model for tea cultivation in various regions. The experience of Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden demonstrates that proper fertilization, pruning, and garden sealing can maintain stable tea growth even under fluctuating climate conditions, laying a solid foundation for spring tea production. However, due to differences in climate, soil, and ecological conditions across tea regions, these techniques require regional adaptation. For instance, in warm, humid southern tea-growing regions where pests and diseases are more prevalent in autumn and winter, it is essential to use low-toxicity, effective fungicides during garden sealing to reduce disease threats (Zeng et al., 2018). Conversely, in high-altitude, colder regions, tea trees enter dormancy earlier, so pruning and fertilization should be scheduled earlier to ensure adequate nutrient accumulation. These examples suggest that autumn and winter management techniques have broad adaptability across regions but must be optimized to local conditions for effective implementation.

The promotion of autumn and winter management practices can also stabilize tea yield and quality, especially amid increasingly unstable climate patterns. By adopting the Dongping Tea Garden model, tea gardens nationwide can apply scientific measures to cope with extreme climate events, such as soil and water conservation, drainage improvement, and ecological protection. These strategies enhance tea tree resilience and mitigate the adverse impacts of climate fluctuations on tea production, supporting the potential for widespread application of these techniques across different tea-growing regions.

6.2 The relationship between tea garden management and ecological balance

Tea garden management is closely linked to ecological balance. Scientific and reasonable management practices not only enhance tea yield and quality but also contribute to the stability of the tea garden ecosystem. At Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden, ecological construction and biodiversity conservation—such as planting shade trees and nectar plants—have established a stable food chain, effectively controlling pest and disease occurrence and reducing pesticide use. During garden clearing and sealing, low-toxicity or non-toxic control methods are employed, maintaining the garden’s ecological environment and the natural conditions required for tea tree growth. Such management practices protect soil health and water quality, minimizing human-induced disruptions to the ecosystem and fostering sustainable tea garden development.

Furthermore, ecological balance within tea garden management subtly influences the flavor and aroma of tea leaves. Diverse plant species not only provide tea trees with a favorable microclimate but also improve soil fertility and water conditions. This environmental regulation effect has been notably evident in Dongping Tea Garden, where tea quality remains stable, with enhanced flavor characteristics. Integrating ecological balance into tea garden management offers a model for other tea gardens aiming to improve tea quality while promoting sustainable agricultural development.

6.3 Future directions for tea garden management technology development

Future development of tea garden management technologies will likely focus on precision, ecology, and intelligence to better meet the challenges of climate change and market demand. Precision fertilization, smart irrigation, and pest monitoring technologies can reduce resource waste and improve management efficiency. For example, using sensors to monitor soil moisture, temperature, and nutrient levels allows tea gardens to irrigate and fertilize at optimal times and locations, precisely meeting tea trees’ growth needs. Smart pest monitoring systems can provide early warnings, allowing for biological control methods and enabling low-pesticide or pesticide-free tea production (Jia et al., 2019; Lloret et al., 2021).

On the ecological front, future tea garden management will emphasize diversified plantings and soil improvement techniques to enhance ecological sustainability. For instance, planting green manure crops and cover plants can boost soil fertility and reduce soil erosion. Additionally, introducing beneficial insects or microorganisms can increase biodiversity in the tea garden, creating a natural pest control system. These ecologically focused management strategies not only protect the environment but also enhance the natural quality and market competitiveness of tea.

7 Concluding Remarks

This study systematically analyzed the autumn and winter management techniques at Dongping High Mountain Tea Garden and their impact on spring tea yield and quality. The findings reveal that appropriate autumn and winter management practices, including fertilization, pruning, garden clearing, and sealing, are crucial for maintaining healthy tea tree growth and improving spring tea yield and quality. Data from 2022 to 2024 demonstrate that these practices enhanced tea tree resilience and stabilized yield amid fluctuating climate conditions, with a particularly significant yield increase in 2024 under high-temperature conditions. Furthermore, combining ecological balance with effective management improved soil fertility and microclimate, enhanced tea aroma and flavor, and stabilized tea quality. These findings offer valuable insights and references for autumn and winter management practices in other tea regions.

Based on the results, several key practices can be implemented to enhance spring tea yield and quality. The application of organic fertilizer and precise fertilization timing are essential for maintaining soil nutrients in autumn and winter, providing a solid foundation for spring growth. Additionally, pruning and topping should be adjusted according to the specific characteristics of tea varieties and local climate conditions to minimize unnecessary nutrient consumption and undesirable growth. During garden clearing and sealing, low-toxicity and effective pest control measures should be adopted to maintain ecological balance and reduce pest-related damage to spring tea. Targeted management practices, such as soil and water conservation, drainage improvement, and adjustments in sloped, nutrient-poor, or high-water table plots, can significantly enhance tea tree resilience. These recommendations will help improve spring tea yield and quality, ensuring the market competitiveness of tea.

While this study highlights the importance of autumn and winter management for spring tea yield and quality, further research is needed. Future studies could leverage precise meteorological data and soil monitoring technologies to quantify the relationship between autumn and winter management practices and spring tea yield and quality, providing data-driven insights for optimizing management techniques. Given that different tea varieties respond differently to autumn and winter practices, more detailed variety-specific management approaches will help achieve differentiated management among tea varieties. Moreover, as climate change intensifies, the impact of extreme weather on tea production is increasingly significant, and future research could explore more effective tea garden management strategies under climate change through simulation studies.

Acknowledgments

The authors express gratitude to the tea garden staff for providing management data and capturing images of the tea garden. Additionally, the authors sincerely thank the two anonymous peer reviewers for their thorough evaluation of the manuscript and valuable suggestions.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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